GLOBAL Dr. Peter E. Pflaum http://www.wiredbrain.net/ VILLAGE ENTERPRISES 225 Robinson Road New Smyrna Beach FLORIDA 32069 (904) 428-1355 May 28, 1994 SMALL SCHOOLS - BIG ISSUES Abstract: This paper reviews the current educational research and theory on improving schooling. Most of the suggestions and evidence for effective schools are factors that naturally occur in small schools. The dominate idea is to change the factory like system to the collaborative model of post-modern organizations. The core change involves small stable groups, with teams of teachers spending more time with the same students. The strain of today's social life requires schools with a family or village atmosphere. To get small class size you must have small schools because of the problems of cost and bureaucracy. A second element is helping students take charge of their learning. Self direct- ed and phased learning using nongraded or multi-graded groups creates an individual and integrated curriculum in the students' mind. The new technology and performance assessment can help create a constantly improving learning community. There is growing concern about the performance of American Education. Our international competitiveness depends on smart people. Schools often fail as institutions to think clearly about itself and to cultivate thinking in their students. Schooling, as now practiced, is harmful to creative initiatives. There is a general rejection of the bureaucratic "scientific management" style of organization. The new TQM (Total Quality Management of W. Edwards Deming) is often wrongly understood as a new form of MBO (Management by Objective) or human relations theory. It is not. TQM is different. The issue of quantified goals vs. leadership is the central difference. The all too common gap between the statement of principles and implementation is cause for bewilderment. One reason for the long history of failed educational reform is that real change required by TQM, for example, is more demanding than many pretend. A second reason, usually unspoken, is the dominant issue of control. Power is often more important than performance. There is often a willful effort to prevent reform while pretending to do it. Schools create a process that is designed to confuse the enemy and deflect criticism. They have experience in pretending to reform while messing up implementation. Experienced teachers don't belief "them" anymore. Some people are fools, some are selfish, and many are both. School administration is full of people who make solicitous statements about the welfare of the children but do little to improve the schools while protecting themselves and their position. Small use much of the current wisdom on effective schools because they naturally are functional human groups. Small schools are free from the systems' failures of large administrative systems. Big organizations are hard to change unless they operate as smaller units. One useful model is Handy's model of clusters in large international corporations. Personal commitment is a core value of functional social groups. Power is with the people is small schools. School consolidation created a major shift of power from local parents and teachers to administrators and political bosses. The reform of public education cannot be done in a reality vacuum. Power cannot be removed from a failed system without an alternative source of power. Maybe the business community is now exasperated enough with the gross incompetence of many schools and their products. Business can provide the power base for real change. I. Thesis We estimate there are 10,000 innovative and creative schools in every part of the country. These schools are mostly ungraded, use individualized instruction, self paced learning; children are encouraged to learn on their own and work effectively in groups, children help each other and do peer tutoring. These schools are friendly and happy places where teachers guide and students learn. They are socially stable over time, people know and love each other. About 300,000 students go to these schools with joy in the morning. There are no drugs, guns, or violence; few discipline problems and most of the students are above average on national tests. These schools cost less than 50% of the national average expenditure and are clearly better places to teach and learn. What is the common factor? What is the magic? They are SMALL. The crisis in American Education involves quality, politics and testing, and a new model for schools. The small school linked to a learning community by communications technology can be a major path to reform. How can we have these thousands of successful schools working in almost every county and town in the country and so few know about it? It is because they are non-public. About two-thirds are religious. The Catholics, ( over a third of the students) Seventh Day Adventist, Lutherans, Episcopal, Mennonites, Amish, Presbyterian, Baptist and other established churches run many fine small schools. The majority of non-public schools (not students) are evangelical and started for religious reasons. There are thousands of small cooperative, parent run, or private schools in America. Many are day care centers are expanding into the elementary grades. Synergy and The New School Reform: The Critical Reformation: Grouping Critical to productivity is solving the lack of motivation, the unfocused worker. We need a stable group over a longer period and hours per day. The factory system represented by the Carnegie unit credit dices the student into intellectual pieces where nothing relates to anything else. You wouldn't expect your office staff should shift rooms several times a day, have several supervisors with different goals and styles, and expect them to be highly productive. (Handy P. 217 ) " On most days fewer than 10 students will be working hard, the rest do little more than sit there (if they bother to come). If you ask the idle students why they are not working, they will tell you work is boring, they don't need it, and no one cares what they think. (Glasser) Levin, Comer, and Meier are given as examples of how TQM can work in public education. In these cases a small family like grouping is critical. (Smart Schools, Smart Students) A century of educational research and practice has shown Team- work - interdisciplinary - project orientated techniques are clearly superior to the current piecework curriculum and methods. The teachers and students become involved and turned-on. (Again examples of Central Park East, Comer Schools and Levin but also the best private schools like the Parker School in NYC) In the traditional school, most of the time, most of our students are leaning on their shovels. (Glasser) More get done if more people are actually working. Our foreign competition works 40 hr. a week for 220 days a year, while our students do a few hours at task ( most of school time is not at task ) for 180 days less teacher days, snow days etc. If someone works 1600 or more hours a year vs. less than 400 hours they are 400% more productive. No wonder. We just mess around, it's hard to believe anyone is serious about improvement. We do spend more years in school reworking the same skills and knowledge. Two years of College is largely made up of secondary level work, and the first year of graduate school is at the undergraduate level. Knowledge industry will require a master's degree as a basic education. In a wealthy society 70% of jobs will require skills missing in 70% of the current American population. Stable groups over time and team work is central to effective schools. Thirty tied down, bored student with the teacher talking in front of the classroom is not effective education. People must be involved in what they are doing. There must be a connection between thinking and doing. After all, how do you learn anything? If you read and are "talked-at" about a subject do you know it? If you then take an exam on the same content; have you learned? What can you do ? Medical school has clinical practice, law school has mock court. Would you use a doctor or lawyer without practice and experience? (See Fiske about Comer)- Fiske says P. 14 " Trying to get more learning out of the current system is like trying to get the Pony Express to compete with the telegraph by breading faster ponies." Learning depends on your interest and purpose. Most students are not interested and don't care because they don't see the connections with doing. It appears to them as absurd but they go along without focus, because they have no choice. Traditional practices often continue in American schooling despite knowledge of ineffectiveness. When change is made ideas are often implemented incorrectly. T. Peters (1992) says 80% of Quality Circles produced no benefits. The ideas and suggestions of the teams were not acted on and they got discouraged. The confusion between MBO with measured outcomes, inspections, and central control and TQM with leadership and quality has made school improvement projects less likely to work. Programmed failure of reform is one way of maintaining control. Small stable groups can focus and be grounded. We believe there are thousands of exciting, happy, effective, creative, well ordered, small schools in America. No one knows about them. Small is less than 15 students to a teacher. Small is 50 students in the building, "stable" is three or less groups where the child is with the same people for more than two years. Stories of the one-room school are stories of caring and quality. Why small schools are better! They are innovative because they are small. In many of the same ways parents have to work with each child, schools have to be as creative. Invention is necessary because of the great natural variance between people. One size will not fit all. Good schools pay attention to each child. Now that so many children have trouble at home it is especially necessary to have home like schools. Many schools are open early and close late. They provide meals, health and social care, even clothes. (Comer and Levin) Jane M. Healy in Endangered Minds suggests that television does brain damage. The quick cuts, colors, and patterns harm the language centers at the time of development. She gives reports of why children can't think because of structural problems in the higher level learning centers. Parents don't talk to their children. Day-care is not a substitute for good mothers. As James O. Wilson suggests in social-biology there are limits on what people can do without harm. Millions of attentive parents wish to avoid the public schools and are looking for alternatives, looking for CHOICE. In addition there are (maybe) 500,000 additional home-study students who do very well as far as anyone can tell. My wife and I are among the few people (we know of) who are interested in studying the small non-public school. There is no research we have been able to find. These schools are invisible. How small schools can be improved. Small schools can work with outside consultants to develop criteria based evaluation systems and use the National Assessment of Education to show strengths and weaknesses. Evaluation can establish learning-driven rather than test-driven systems. Total Quality Management (TQM) Systems for small schools make sense. In The Future of Learning and Teaching (1968) John Goodlad says: One job for the next 10-15 years is to implement the human-based innovations we have been talking about for the past 15 years. The era of man-machine interaction will replace the current era; the problem is not whether we like the idea but what we are going to do about it. We must identify the truly human task of the human teac- her and the more routine, highly programmed task can be done better by the computer. A third still embryonic era is the future one in which the school as we know it will be obsolete. It will be replaced by a diffused learning environment . . . . Charles Handy's The Age of Unreason suggests schools will benefit from defining their core activities and use subcontractors and temporary, part-time services as much as possible. They become learning organizations for an information age. The traditional school is still an industrial factory like system. The student is processed with learning as a product. Modern organizations are information processing centers with a few clever people doing imaginative things. Small is not only beautiful but more responsive and flexible. Modern technology can provide for excellence with the help of support systems, contractors and temporary workers. We need to develop a networking system for small schools. Deming (W. Edwards) interviewed on "American Interests" on Public Television. The 92 year old production engineer was attacking the idea of quantified goals. At one point he got testy with the interviewer about standards. Quality does not come from setting measurable goals. This struck me as contrary to all the MBO and behavioral objectives literature. What is going on here? I was motivated to read again "Out of Crisis." Slowly it dawned on me. The idea of quality is a paradigm shift. It is not a set of standards and instruction, methods, and inspections but a feeling and a mission. Rethinking the role and organization of work suggest the reasons for small schools and multiage grouping. The core people work always with the same stable group of students. There are outside consultants and support systems. The parents are temporary workers or part-time help to be used as necessary. Quality become internal and there is a constant stream of improvements. Leaders start a fire under themselves and students. Institutional structures keep it going. You don't invent great schools. The best you can do is inspire leadership and encourage conditions where sometimes greatness can take place. This naturally happens in many small schools. Re-inventing Education A shamrock (clover) organization has a core of full time highly motivated and skilled people and two clusters of suppliers, contractors and part-time and temporary workers. In industry this means a set of semi-independent subsidiarity. It is management by results (Drucker). It is quick and agile with maximum delegation. ( Peters ) Schools would be "learning or information centers" with educational managers and executives. Individuals and mini-schools would contract for a range of services. Independent suppliers would provide language, art, science, mathematics, computing, design, travel, and other elements of a program. Managers would monitor performance and advise on flexible multiage groupings. The teaching profession needs a ratio of 3 to 1 from beginning to master teacher - $20,000 to $60,000. The research suggests student/- teacher ratios of 13 or less. Small schools are 40 students with 3 teachers at the elementary level and 6 teachers and 80 student at the secondary. The apprentice teacher (B.A. ratio=1) would move to Assistant with experience and training (ratio = 1.5). The next step of Associate (M.A. Ratio = 2), teacher (ratio =2.5) and Master Teacher (Ph.D. Ratio=3). Each group would have a teacher or associate teacher as team leader. A pod of groups would be led by a master teacher. This system need not cost more because of the removal of most of the non- classroom professional staff - the group itself provides special services or contracts for them. Each student would have a core of study and tasks to demonstrate capacities in interpersonal skills, practical competencies, and organizational ability. Learning and doing are combined in work tasks. SOLUTIONS & PLANS Small schools are cheaper, more effective, and with technology (distance education) as fancy as you wish. Surely students in two hundred little schools spread out are safer than 1600 students at one place. The danger of 1600 people in one facility seems to me more clear and present. By getting more of the $4500 to the classroom you can reduce size below fifteen. This if nothing else will assure success. (Project Star) Small schools can be improved and strengthened. In brief, the shamrock model of the flexible business of the future (from Hadry, The Age of Unreason) can be applied to schools. The core is full-time clever people working with clever systems to help one-time students learn to learn. The learning organization is supported by a second pod of real-time suppliers of advanced information systems. A picture is used on the logo of the program "Learning Matters", the little red school house with a satellite dish, this is a good symbol of this process of connecting the Global Village to the Little Red Schoolhouse. (Distance Education.) The third pod of our model network of schools are temporary and part-time people providing language, arts, theater, etc. For example there is the gymnastics bus which visits small schools in our area (the "jolly gymnast" uses the insides of a rebuilt school bus). There could be the science bus, the arts and crafts team and better use of all the great semi-retired and part-talent in the community. The forth pod are the parents and volunteers, co-op education or apprenticeships. Urban Areas could have dozens of little schools. It is bound to be better with no other innovation. Small is where everyone knows your name, your brothers and sisters, and every teacher knows every child- and there are no full time administrators. I would think about 50 students and 3 teachers is small. You could use houses, storefronts, churches. Use the old school plant as a community center, theater, sports center, library, science center, art museum, and other community resources. Large Schools were supported by the Ford Foundation and others in the 1950 's because they could offer specialized services. Today a surprising small number of High School students take foreign language at all, tiny numbers a second year of language- the same with sciences such as physics or advanced mathematics. There are few qualified teachers in technical subjects. Networks and consultant services are clearly cheaper and better ways to provide advanced and special pro- grams. The one-room school house was viewed as primitive and back- wards. The consolidated school and the school bus was seen as modern and progressive. No real research was done to justify the massive consolidation of education from 1924 to 1950 's. Florida: Blueprint 2000 from the Florida Commission on Education Reform and Accountability is part of the national movement for more effective schools. America 2000 is a national program still in Congress. The New American Schools Development Corporation (NASDC) is a private effort to reinvent schooling. Edward B. Fiske in Smart School, Smart Kids. Why Do Some Schools Work (1991) reviews the role of the states in reform and the national effort in Chapter 10. Assessment is the critical element. What Fiske calls "holding their feet to the fire". Schools will be open, less regulation, but must be more accountable. The National Governors Conference (NGC) is quite serious about setting higher standards in public education. The work of TQ/IQ of Dr. Luther R. Rogers and Dr. Charles Ahearn of the Office of Organizational Development and Education Leadership, DOE, Florida is among the best work I've seen on Total Quality Management (TQM). There is, however, confusion between the testing and objective standards mind-set MBO and the TQM process in Florida's school improvement program. The problem of accountability in education and the implementation of school reform depends on change agents who can visualize alter- natives and have practice in creative styles. The school improvement program keeps slipping into MBO, people want to set quantified objectives, they are used to top-down factory like management styles, they increase inspections, they use objective standardized testing for goal setting. TQM is a continuous problem solving method of self-managed groups. Data is generated for self-improvement not reporting. Testing is customer satisfaction or actual performance not proscribed stan- dards. The experience of TQM is a discovery method, open ended, with no one right answer. A lot of people have trouble with this. I get it all the time in class. They want to be told and be certain of the outcome. This is what they are used to. What Erickson called the "fear of freedom" is natural because change is hard. My workbook uses an orderly process to develop conditions for creative problem solving. Student and School Performance: Since ONLY 10% or less of High School graduates are ready for college (NAEP, Crossroads), it is clear we have an educational disaster on our hands involving almost all public school students. As Jack Bowsher, the former educational director at IBM said; If 25% of production breaks during manufacture and if 90% don't work 80% of the time (72% defect rate) the company would have to rethink the entire production process. (Quoted in Shanker) Our students lack cognitive skills and practical thinking abilities. They have not been asked or put in situations where they think in extended ways. The educational process needs to transform itself as much as General Motors did in the creation of the SATURN plant. ( Halberstam, The Reckoning uses the auto industry as a parable of our problems) The message is largely in the process and methods. If we expect Z type students we must create a new system. Students are workers not the raw material to be processed by the schooling system. The role of teacher is leadership and management. Active learning requires a highly moral learning community not the old factory model. Students are looked upon as raw material to be processed rather than as workers (Handy). The origin of morality is sincerity. The Japanese ideograph for "sincere" carries the connotation of "for real," moral, devoted, loyal, and trustworthy, a good member of the group Kaizen type collaboration in mutual help circles. National Competitiveness: The survival of the nation as a competitive culture has been seriously questioned by Clinton. The change required is from mass production to flexible and rapid response in high value added products and services. (Peters) Since the late 60s many other nations have been more successful in the realities of international competition. In the new world order everything is free to move to where it has a natural advantage. A society only has its people and its infrastructure. From 1950 to 1990 the number of factory workers has remained about 17 million but the labor force has grown from 60 to 120 million. (28% to 15%) The percentage of workers in the Fortune 500 has also declined. More than 65% of workers are in small companies. If Handy is right a large numbers of people maybe forced to work part-time or will have to create their own jobs and call themselves self-employed. America's average increase in productivity lagged behind most industrial nations. (West Germany, France, Italy and the rest of the EC, Japan and even Britain) American personal well-being, our standard of living is now lower than several other countries, unemployment is higher, life expectancy lower (though we spend much more on health care), levels of pollution are higher, crime much worse, education poorer, rate of saving and investment much lower. By almost every measure of well-being America's relative position is declining. The real standard of living has not changed since 1969 and household income keeps up only by more women working. There is a simple reason for the relative decline in our country. Other countries are organized for economic adoption to changes in the international market while we are not. The history of the modern world has been an interplay between great technological changes and social adjustments. The business and civic culture either support the new industries or resist and prevent needed change. (Reich, 1983 P. 17) Ayn Rand in her novels presents the "hero" who fights against the mindless "corporate empires," unions and government alliance against innovation. Mature capitalism tends toward creation of a few large dominant companies. The needs of "rationalization" and control of industries require large capital investments and have forced consolidations for over a century. Innovation becomes increasing more difficult. The Dow-Jones Industrial average of 30 big companies lags behind the 500. Big is not beautiful and G.M., I.B.M. , Sears, - all are too big and inflexible. America has a choice: It can adapt to the new economic realities by altering its business and public institutions and human resource base or it can continue to decline. Our cultural heritage, once so successful, must change customs, attitudes, and values. Fundamental change is emotionally difficult. (Reich P. 21) For example a recent want-ad for a production worker at Motorola uses these skills in their job description; The worker is expected to understand the process involved in production. (What is going on here?) They are expected to think of alternatives,-collect information, design and conduct experiments -Analyze data from small scale research. They need to have the training to try difference methods, check for consequences, and implement improvements. - (Deming P.3), Fortune, Dec 17, 1990 said the line worker at an entry- level job : " Analyze computer reposts and identify problems through experimentq and statistical process control. Communicate manufacturing performance metrics to management, and understand the company's competitive position." If we have a high income future then 70% of work (not necessarily jobs in someone's company) will require research skills and advanced information processing and analysis. We can look forward to a life time of continual learning. Our schooling and training systems cannot perform without basic changes. The quality movement is a response to the crisis in our economy. The effects of lower living standards apply to most people and institutions. It is a political and cultural crisis. III. Quality Control for Learning A paradigm shift is taking place in progressive business and industry today. The philosophy of total quality control, begins with Deming in the 1950 s'. The ideas of total quality control require a shift of power from the supervisor to teamwork and group problem solving. The shift is from inspection to sincere productivity, quality, and rapid solutions to customers desires. Fix the problem not the blame. The difference is from setting the blame and passing the buck to solving the problem. Sincerity requires really knowing what is going on. We must reconnect thinking and doing. In the past management did the thinking, planning, organizing while the rest of us did the work. (Reich, 1983) "They" don't really know what is going on. "They" looked down on us as primitive. "They" are the teac- hers, "us" are the students, "They" are the administrators, "us" are the teachers, "they" are the legislators, "us" are the administrators, etc. They just don't understand the real work of the classroom, they don't understand us. The core problem involves the political and cultural context of public schooling in America. The system adjusts and then returns to type after some innovations. Before we can reform the schools we need a system capable of reform. The second central problem in schooling is the considerable naturally occurring variance between human beings. Students, teachers, curriculum, materials, physical settings, community standards and conditions are wildly different. The theory of mass production never did fit the realities of variance in public schooling. The standard deviation by grade 6 is over 3 years - some can do 9th grade work some can do 3rd. (Glickman) The use of grade level, based on standardized test, is dangerous and misleading. The standard is a slimly slope into absurdity. In Lake Woebegone all the children are above average. As they should be! When organizations fail the management often tries to tighten the rules. Work is further standardized and subject to greater examination and other forms of inspection and certification by increasing the rules and work required. Special causes of variance are mixed up with common systems problems. The people who do the work must find the solutions. Visible numbers are often unimportant or misleading. The invisible but essential element of quality shows in the satisfaction of the customer. The first step is to figure out "what is going on here?". If we don't understand the causes of the problem in the first place, most of the proposed cures can exacerbate the predicament by raising costs and lowering moral and productivity. A method leads to a Solution: Total Quality Management (TQM), a technique traditionally reserved for the manufacturing sector, has recently spread to service companies, government agencies, and educational institutions. TQM places responsibility for quality problems with management, meaning teachers and administration rather than on the workers (students). A principle message of TQM is the management of Process Variation, by which variations in production or quality within a manufacturing or service process are viewed as "special cause" variations, under the control of the employees operating the process; or "common cause" variations, which require management action to change some inherent feature of the process. Most of the problems are in the systems and the responsibility of the management and teachers. We must stop blaming the student who may have been damaged by the school system. Let's fix the problem rather than the blame. The hallmark of TQM is the continual improvement of processes, achieved through a shift in focus from outcomes (or products) to the processes that produce them. TQM achieves its objectives through data collection and analysis. Flow charts, cause and effect diagrams, and other Total Quality Tools are used to understand and improve processes. (Summary from Heverly) Statistical tools such as Pareto charts, histogram, and control charts, sampling, central tendencies, and dispersion are necessary for mathematic ideas needed to read, interpret, and create various reports on progress. "Mental math," calibrations, and the "Percent Circle" are simple ways of getting a handle on the real conditions of instruction and learning. These tools of quality control are easy to use and it is not difficult finding materials in a variety of situations. The game of BEANO where some dark beans are mixed with light beans and people are rewarded or punished, or sent to retraining on the basis of the contents of their scoop of beans. The real world rewards teachers with "good" students. By chance some are better off than others. Teachers who get more "bad" ones in their lot are expected to do as well as the ones who are luckly enough to get a better group Teachers can only be responsible for features under the control of the teacher. The game is one method of understanding natural distributions and the management consequences of reward systems and incentives. (Deming ps 346 - 354) In the real world the measurement problem is critical. Glasser is a good guide to avoiding the common situation of failed students, teachers, and schools. Total Quality Management (TQM) 1.) Constancy of purpose to stay in business ( it takes time ) 2.) Leadership with a new philosophy ( human potential ) 3.) Cut out inspections - testing and grades replace with targets 4.) Look at total cost rather than lowest price - rework is extravagant - do it right in the first place, crime and economic decline are very expensive. 5.) Constant improvement 6.) Training (job related) and 13.) education (learning to think) 7.) Overhaul supervision - leadership of teams 8.) Drive out fear, encourage risk taking 9.) Breaking down barriers to productivity, textbooks, exams, Bureaucracy in all its forms 10.) getting rid of slogans (the whole child, everyone can learn etc.) 11.) remove all quantified goals use individualized targets (use only criteria based quality outcomes, quality not quantity) 12.) help working teams focused on quality as seen by the user, thinking for yourself, and most things can be improved most of the time - there is always a better way. 13.) More education and experience in other places 14.) everyone is involved, students, parents, employers, government. In education TQM means reducing objective testing, letting people teach and learn without constant interference and distractions, open classrooms with teachers working in teams. John Jay Bonstingl sees relevant similarities of business organizations and schools. PROCEDURES: The human potential movement is based on the simple principle; people will do better if they are involved and care about themselves and the organizational goals. People think, feel, perceive and sense what is going on. Trustworthy sincerity is necessary to create a climate for excellence. Positive, supportive, creative places en- courage people to perform because they care about the results and know others care about them. The bottom line is the satisfaction of the customer and employees, profit will be a byproduct of quality. Motivation for quality is not caused by fear, inspections, rewards, incentives, quantified goals, management by objectives, and other misused human relations (more references at end) approaches that can be posi- tively harmful. The teacher of the year award creates false standards and breaks up the group Tests cause fear; inspection leads to cheating and goal displacement. Teach to the test all ye who enter here ( Porter, ETS' conference) is not the best we can do. IV. ASSESSMENT VS. TESTING: One of the less likely reforms is a national testing system. Many people seem to understand the dangers of this quick fix. " Among the misuses of tests are their use by policy makers as remote-control devices to alter instruction. The spread of test-score pollution, the growing meaningless of test scores has led to suggestion for reform. Several specific suggestions to alleviate, but not eliminate the problem of test misuse, are: (1) recognize test abuse as a response to dilemmas in the public schools; (2) abolish policies mandating particular tests; (3) reject proposals for national examinations such as those called for in America 2000; and (4) provide funds to develop and pilot unorthodox tests designed to have students demonstrate understan- ding through actual performance." ( Cuban, Office of Technology Assessment) The use of alternative evaluation technology is critical to school reform. Since the tests effect the process and the product in critical ways. Portfolios, and other work products, simulations, and practical exercises are some suggestions. The National Assessment program and Ralph Tyler's work in the "Eight Year Study" show the way to outcomes evaluation that do not try to sort individuals but measure system performance. The National Conference of State Legislatures, National Governors Conference include people who are aware of the need to improve testing. The desire to gain or maintain control and not trusting schools and teachers are causing many problems. Quantified Standards cause people to do the things necessary to meet the expectations of the bosses rather than satisfy the customer and will not produce Quality. No amount of inspection can assure quality. This concept is very hard for many people to understand because it requires a paradigm shift. There is an important difference between the National Assessment Program (Applebee) and standardized tests. The difference is the difference between AIMS and standards. In the National Assessment the students are expected to reach certain levels of competence. Most should be able to perform and win. In standard testing half will be below average. The items are designed to separate the `better' from the `worse'. This lowers performance and harms the students. The distinction between norm- referenced (standardize tests) and criterion- referenced assessment (UCLA Conference) is an issue needs to be more carefully considered even if it seems technical. If you look at the assessment test you see 80% or more can do it. It requires the student to read a passage and answer content questions or items require analysis or interpretation. The standardized test has questions where the top 25% will get them and the lower 25% will not. These items tend to get tricky. (Porter - ETS Conference ) If quality is not high enough, the conventional wisdom and current educational policy is to do more inspections and tests. Have more standards and rules, set higher requirements for graduation, all in the hope quality can be imposed from the top These actions reduce quality and raises costs. It is the wrong thing to do. Testing just makes everyone; - teachers, administrators, students, parents and legislators - irate and crazy. The current program of America 2000 Excellence in Education Act (see note) includes a national examination system. In the search for a "cheap" fix the plan may well make schools worse. An actual intelligent focus on the process, authentic involvement, and a genuine concern for excellence can set loose a cycle of improvement, higher productivity and lower cost. (Wirth and others in Jan. 1993 Phi Delta Kappan) NCEST (National Council on Education Standards and Testing, see note on testing) says "Most current assessment methods cannot determine if students are acquiring the skills/knowledge they need to prosper in the future. These assessments reinforce the emphasis on low-level skills and processing bits of data rather than on problem solving and critical thinking". One answer is to propose better tests. The path to quality requires educational Leadership and modeling to connect thinking and doing through practice. The Los Angeles Learning Center model includes most of the current ideas on schooling reform. Better results need large blocks of time , all morning or afternoons 2-5 times a week -(Carroll) in mini or maxi seminars and problem solving exercises using complex technology. Work products rather than tests are better methods of evaluation. Group effort with little interpersonal competition rather high levels of teamwork increases interest and motivation as shown by Kohn and Anton S. Makarenko. For example: inter-locked courses - students and teachers in doing one year projects (credits in social science, history, government, business, English, humanities, speech, philosophy, math, science depending of the makeup of the teaching group etc. or Introduction to Education - Learning to Learn thinking I and II ) These ideas are in several of the New American Schools Development Corporations model plans. The Los Angeles Learning Center (Feb 1992) "Moving Diamond" model is a group of 120 students in clusters PK-4, 5-8, and 9-12. VI. CONCLUSIONS & SUGGESTIONS: The content is in the method. You can not teach one thing and do another thing - like teaching thinking by rote methods with an objective exam for evaluation 7. The step by step practice helps - under- standing the text but not textbooks - perhaps using the New York Times, journals, and research projects in history, literature, social science, humanities, rather than predigested information. Ideas have been discussed by alternative schooling since the Dewey's Lab school and the one-room school house. The competencies involved in the following are just a few of the skills integrated into the process: * making comparisons - understanding and using charts and graphs - interpretation of data * experimental design - applied (action) research * concept for math and science - methods * synthesis - judgement - structured thought * mixed scanning - overview (speed reading) - details (spot the central ideas) * how to outline, clear writing and speaking, visual presentations * general systems analysis (biology, physics, organizations) The National Assessment of Educational Progress has developed criteria based tests which are a good guide to content. Psychology has developed a better understand of the cognitive process. (Applebee, Sternberg, Kegan also CRESST at UCLA) POLICY PLANNING: Alternatives Sometimes it is necessary to transpose an issues to make headway. Most improvements in Health finance, Education and Welfare is like trying to make the pony express competitive with the telegraph. We are trying to breed faster ponies rather than shift into a new dimension and governing paradigm. ( Analogy from Edward B. Fiske Smart Schools, Smart Kids ) I ask you to envision a school and training strategy from pre- school to post-graduate training where all the components are part of regional, state, and national organizations. The federal government, Department of Labor and Education, would provide 50% of the funding on a scale inversely related to the taxable wealth of the state, region, or service area. Each program would have clearly stated goals. Assessment would be conducted on a regular basis by an independent contractor. Outcomes, learning not teaching, will be measured and money will be tied to learning. Now conceive of a regional development network of research agencies, small business support centers, large and small improvement projects, ( a little like the WPA, PWA, CCC, & Youth Corps). The economic plan supports educational and training activities directly related to industrial policy. For example, in Atlanta there could be a direct broadcast for health centers and in-service and community college training. EDUCATION: For example: a student is thrown out of class for setting the teachers desk on fire. He is in special make-up English to get the last of four credits so he can graduate. The credit hours are a state regulation, performance in not measured, since he has three credits in High School English and is reading at best at the 5th grade level. The parents pressure the principal, the principal talks to the dean, the dean asks the teacher, the kid graduates. The school has now met a state goal and reduced dropouts. The school board supports the administration. The teacher looks for another job. The kid graduates and is busted and ends up in jail. The state has spent $ 4,500 a year on 12 years of education about $50,000 and the kid can't read. He has no useful skills to market. He doesn't show up or speak in standard English. The state will now spend $30,000 a year on jail. With the other public supports the kid has cost more than $100,000. We all worse off, with no end in sight. There are 100,000 or more such cases in Florida - millions of such kids and billions of dollars nationally going down the drain. We better get off the pony express. The system is absurd and expensive. The reason is politics at the local level. No guts! Everyone involved in public education know it. You have to have and enforce real learning standards, not standardized test results. In the medical example is person was in critical condition in the first place because of deleterious medical care. In the educational example the kid was in trouble and causing trouble because of detrimental educational care. A large part of the problem was caused by the current practice, iatrogenic , problems caused by the cure. The population used to have 2% handicapped or disabled children. Now there are maybe 10% with learning disabilities, emotional problems, attention deficient, etc. Students who fail to learn are labeled and blamed for the systems problems. Good primary care, techniques of direct instruction such as phonics could have prevented both predicaments and saved a lot of grief. We know how to provide both - but have strategic delivery problems. We need new structures ! Nothing could be clearer. Let's get on with it. I am working on Goal #3 Student Performance of Blueprint 2000. My work at Daytona Beach Community College West Campus. I have noticed the "Thinking Deficit Disorder" at DBCC. Students have told me they have not been asked to think. They have surprising little experience working in groups, problem solving, discovery method, and other forms of non- directive education. I have designed a basic social science workbook which is precisely designed to achieve the goals of Standard #1 - Problem solving and research methods; Standard # 4 - creative thinking and Standard # 7 social-technical systems thinking. It the real world of large classes meeting for short periods it is difficult to set the conditions for self-directed learning in groups. I use a combination of the portfolio and journal procedure with points given as we go along. I hope we are in a cycle of constant improvement. I hope next term will be even better than the last. I am sending (under separate cover) a draft of the workbook which is still in process. I thought this model used in my classes may be useful in teacher and administrative training. People can only do what they know and experience. It maybe necessary to have a set of successful simulations for stakeholders. You learn by doing in teaching thinking and systems analysis. Doing not talking about problem solving. The central theme of research is connecting thinking with doing in education and business. Motivation comes first. Motivation comes from having real goals of real people. How can your life be make better ? Focus on the prize ? People have to believe in the reality of the goal and care about it. A sincere attention to quality requires a shift in values. When people really care enough they will devote the time and effort to do better. They must have a grounding in methods and a belief than winning is possible. Without concern and attention little is possible. Incentives have to be carefully structured. Getting unfocused students ( or workers ) to care, participate, be sincere and energized is not easy. The same is true for adults who have been turned off or have never been turned on. The community colleges have been creative and flexible. They are involved in the expensive rework of skills unlearned in high schools. They should be included in "Blueprint 2000". The non- public schools are another source of innovation. Many concerned parents who care about education have sent their children to private schools. Parents of private school children include many teachers and school administrators, business and political leaders and university professors. This pool of talent and interest need to be included. Outcomes evaluation can be very useful to small private schools and in home schooling. I think each county and the state committees should have a separate non- public school grouP. If they are included with the public school folks they will be badly outnumbered. There are 9% or more, (200,000) students in non-public or home education. School reform is very difficult. I worked on the national assessment program while at Harvard (with Ted Sizer) in the mid 60s. We discussed most of the problems we are still facing. If anything schools are in more trouble now. School reform works when enough people really care to make it work. Goodlad has been at it for decades, and reflects good sense when he says it is a marginal step-by-step process. Success should lead to success. A passion for excellence is hard to instill and maintain. Individuals make a difference. Core of the belief system: The core of our belief system is in small multi-age (Miller) schools. These schools have friendly groups where people focus on goals and help each other. Many are "learning organizations" from the natural interaction of people who spend a lot of time together in a stable setting. There are about 1000 one room public schools ( about 3,500 small public) and maybe 10,000 non-public schools with less than 50 students and three teachers. No one has counted them. No one knows anything about them beyond the 1000 one room public and some Amish or Mennonite schools. Educational interest groups have a mixed agendas. Why doesn't 90% of the roughly $4,500 per student expenditure spent in public education end up in the classroom? The interest of school boards (jobs and power), the administration (getting out of the classroom and high pay in an office), and the teachers ( some control, getting out of the worse classes ) and the parents do not agree on process or priorities. The estimated $125,000 per classroom (based on 28 pupils per class) spent per classroom clearly should yield excellence in education. Currently about $37,000 per classroom (30% of $125,000) goes to the teacher (salary and benefits). At current levels of expenditure we can afford small schools of excellence with school readiness, well-paid teachers, site based management, world class materials, flexible schedules and calendars, satellite communication and interactive technology, transportation for off-site and contracted services in music, art, testing, improved community and school relationships, integrated curriculum relating learning and doing, peer tutoring, performance evaluation and successfully mainstreamed special needs students . Where does the money go? Administrative systems, middle management, the setting of rules and procedures, handbooks, and methods, all the less than useful activity of large organizations. All the bureaucrats are very busy and over worked. Because they are active they think they are productive. They also are politically active. Small schools can have all the conventional wisdom about next-generation schooling without the administrative costs. Good schools are possible by cutting out the tremendous and expensive bureaucratic overhead of large schools. Small schools do not need it. Issues of special education, counselors, and libraries can be handled by subcontracting and networking consultants. What we are look for is a federation of mini-schools. Based on experience of 200,000 one-room schools operated in this country before 1920 all students can benefit from the small school experience. References Abernethy and Serfass One Districts Quality Improvement Story Educational Leadership Nov 1992 America 2000 Excellence in Education Act. Proposed Legislation. Message from the President of the United States Transmitting a Draft of Proposed Legislation entitled,"America 2000 Excellence in Education Act." 102 d Congress, 1st Session. Arthur N. Applebee, Judith A. Langer, and Ina V.S. Mullis Crossroads in American Education: A Summary of Findings, (Princeton, N.J.:National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and Educational Testing Service, 1989, P. 51 Barker, Bruce O. The Advantages of Small Schools, ERIC Digests, Feb 1986, Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools, CRESS Charleston W.V. The Distance Education Handbook ERIC Clearinghouse Rural and Small Schools, CRESS Charleston, W.W. Barker, R. (1964) Big School, small school Sanford CA. Barrett, Michael J. "The Case for More School Days" Atlantic Monthly, (Nov. 1990 Pp 78-106) Barth, R. Improving Schools from Within(San Francisco, Jossey Bass 1990) Blankstein, A. M. (1992). Lessons from enlightened corporations. Educational Leadership, 49(6), 71-75. Bonstingl, J. J. (1992). The total quality classroom. Educational Leadership, 49(6), 66-70. The Quality Revolution in Education, Educational Leadership Nov 1992, Vol 50 No. 3 Brandt, Ron On Deming and School Quality, A conversation with Enid Brown, Educational Leadership, 1992 California State Department of Education, Sacramento California School Effectiveness Study 1977 Carroll, Joseph M. The Copernican Plan: Restructuring the American High School Phi Delta Kappan (January 1990) Clinton, Bill Jobs, Growth & Competitiveness. Making America Work: Productive People, Productive Policies. This report of the Task Force on Jobs, Growth, and Competitiveness of the National Governors' Association Comer, James P. and Comer Process - Yale psychiatrist in Fiske, PP 205 - 233 Learning Communities. Child Study Center Cuban, Larry : The Misuse of Tests in Education. Contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment Title: Testing in American Schools: Asking the Right Questions." Davey, Lynn & Neill, Monty The Case against a National Test. Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. DeYoung, Alan J. & Howley, Craig B. The Political Economy of Rural School Consolidation March 1992 ERIC/CRESS at AEL Dinklocker, Christina Our Deming Users Group Educational Leadership, Nov 1992 Etzioni, Amitai : Restructuring the Schools: A Set of Solutions. Learning; v 11 n 8 p 86-87,92-93 Mar 1983 Firestone, William A. Education Reform from 1983 to 1990: State Action and District Response NGC Fiske, Edward B. Smart Schools, Smart Kids, Why Do Some Schools Work (Simon & Schuster, New York 1991) Fullan, M. (1990). The meaning of educational change (2nd ed.). New York: Gardner, Howard, The Triarchic Mind: A new theory of Human Intelligence (New York, Penguin, 1988) Frames of Mind Heinemann 1983 Glasser, W. (1990). The quality school. Phi Delta Kappan,71(6), 424- 435. Control Theory in the Classroom (86) The Quality School, Managing Student without Coercion (90) (New York, Harper and Row) Schools without Failure below Glickman, C. (1991). Pretending not to know what we know. Educational Leadership, 48, 4-10. Goodlad, J. I. (1984). A place called school: Prospects for the future. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. The Dynamics of Educational Change New York McGraw-Hill 1975 Goodlad, J. I., & Anderson, R. H. (1987). The Non-graded Elementary School. New York: Teachers College Press. The Future of Learning and Teaching (1968 National Education Association) Gregory, Thomas B. & Smith, Gerald R. High Schools as Communities, The Small School Reconsidered Halberstam, David The Reckoning (New York, William Morrow, 1986) Handy, Charles B. The Age of Unreason (Boston, Mass. Harvard Business School Press) 1989 Harris and Harris Glasser Comes to a Rural School, Educational Leadership, Nov 1992 Henry, Jules Culture Against Man(Random House, New York 1965) Heverly, Mary Ann Total Quality Management: Institutional Research Applications Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Eastern Evaluation Research Society (14th, Princeton, NJ, May 20,1991). Holt, Maurice The Educational Consequences Of W. Edward Deming PHI DELTA KAPPAN Jan 1993 Howley, Craig B. What is the effect of Small-Scale Schooling on Student Achievement? ERIC/CRESS (Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools) May 1989, Charleston, W.V. Hunter, M. (1988/1989). "Well acquainted" is not enough: A response to Mandeville and Rivers. Educational Leadership, 46, 67-68. Isaacson and Bamburg Can Schools become Learning Organizations? Educational Leadership, Nov. 1992 Joyce, Bruce R. Models of Teaching (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall) 1986 Kaufman and Hirumi, Ten Steps to TQM Plus, Educational Leadership Nov. 1992 Kolb, D. Experimental Learning(Prentice-Hall, 1984) Kegan, Robert The Evolving Self(Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press) 1982 Kohn, Alfie No Contest, The Case Against Competition (Boston, Houghton Mifflin) 1986 Krotseng, Marsha V. The "Education Governor": Political Packaging or Public Policy? ASHE Annual Meeting Paper. The Los Angeles Learning Center, (Feb, 1992) Peggy Funkhouser, L.A. Educational PartnershiP. Levin, Henry of Center for Educational Research (CERAS) at Stanford University, Accelerated Learning - in Fiske p 109 - 114 Makarenko, A. S. (1973). The Road to Life: An epic in Education. New York: Oriole Editions. Mandeville, G. K., & Rivers, J. (1989). "Is the Hunter model a recipe for supervision? Educational Leadership, 46, 39-43). Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row. McLeod, Willis B. Toward a System of Total Quality Management: Applying the Deming Approach to the Education Setting. Pub.Date--1992 ERS Spectrum; v 10 n 2 p 34-41 Spr Miller, B. "A review of the qualitative research on multigrade instruction" Research in Rural Education 7 (2) 3-12 National Committee on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: the imperative for educational reform (Stock No. 065-000-00177-2). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Conference of State Legislatures Title: Accountability in Education. \Better Education through proof of results. National Council on Education Standards Testing;Raising Standards for American Education. A Report to Congress, the Secretary of Education, the National Education Goals Panel, and the American People. 24 Jan 1992 National Governors' Association From Rhetoric to Action: State Progress in Restructuring the Education System. Jul 199160 p 831 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1990) Reconnecting teachers and learners (The Collaborative classroom) Elmhurst IL and PBS Guidebook #3 Nye, Barbara A. "Five Years of Small Class Research: Students Benefit" Presented to the AERA 1992, Project STAR Maeroff, Gene I. The School Smart Parent (Henry Holt Publishers 1992) Meier, Deborah - Central Park East in East Harlem District #4 a set of 44 small schools with themes. Monk, David Using Technology to Improve the Curriculum of Small Rural Schools ERIC Digest (Apr 1989) CRESS Muse, I, Smith R. & Barker, B. (1987) The one-teacher School in the 1980s Clearinghouse on Rural and Small Schools Ouchi, W. G. (1981). Theory Z. New York: Avon Books. Pirsig, R. M. (1974). Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance: An inquiry into values. New York: Bantam Books. Peters, T. Thriving on Chaos(New York, Harper & Row, 1987) Porter, Andrew C. Assessing National Goals: Some Measurement Dilemmas. In: "The Assessment of National Educational Goals:Proceedings of the 1990 ETS Invitational Conference" (New York City, NY, October 27, 1990). New York. Educational Testing Service, 1990. Reich, Robert B. The Work of Nations: preparing ourselves for the 21 st Century capitalism (New York, A.A. Knopf 1991) The Next American Frontier(New York, Times Books, 1983) Revans, R.W. The Origin and Growth of Action Learning (Chartwell Bratt, 1982) Rhodes, L. A. (1992). On the road to quality. Educational Leadership, 49(6), 76-80. Sizer, Theodore R. Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School(Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co.) 1984 Smith, Dan & DeYoung, Alan J. Big School vs. Small School: Conceptual, Empirical and Political Perspectives on the Re-emerging Debate 1988 Journal of Rural and Small Schools V 2 n 2 p 2-11 Win Senge, P.M. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York, Doubleday 1990) Sergiovanni, T.J. Moral Leadership, Getting to the Heart of School Improvement(San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1992) and Moore, J.H. Schooling for Tomorrow(Boston: Allyn & Bacon) 1989 Schneider, Barbara America's Small Schools (1980 ERIC Clearinghouse, Rural and Small Schools, Charleston W.V.) Schmoker, Mike & Wilson, Richard B. Transforming Schools Through Total Quality Education PHI DELTA KAPPAN Jan 1993 Shanker, A. (1990). The end of the traditional model of schooling -- and A proposal for using incentives to restructure our public schools. Phil Delta Kappan, 71(5), 344-357. Sher, Jonathan The Search for a Better Way: Empowerment, Education and Entrepreneurship in Education with Production; v 6 n 1 p 35-41 Sept 1988 Sizer, T. R. (1991). " No pain, no gain." Educational Leadership, 48 (8), 32-34. Sternberg, Robert Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York, Basic Books, 1985) Stoddart, Trish Some Reflections on the Honorable Profession of Teaching. Sutcliffe, W.Pollock, J. "Can the Total Quality Management Approach Used in Industry Be Transferred to Institutions of Higher Education?" Pub.Date--1992 Vocational Aspect of Education; Tyler, L. (1985). A proposal for reorganizing American public Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 290 224) Tyler, R. W. (1986). Changing concepts of educational evaluation. Journal of Educational Research, 10(1), 1-113. Principle of Curriculum and Instruction(Chicago, University Press, 1950) UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation Educational Quality Indicators: Taking Stock. Proceedings of the Conference (Los Angeles, California, October 12-13,1989). FOUND IN: CRESST Evaluation Comment; Dec 1989 Walton, M. (1986) The Deming Management Method (New York, Putnam) Wirth, Arthur G. Education and Work: The Choices We Face Phi Delta Kappan Jan 1993 Classical Management and Educational theory: Argyris, Chris Personality and Organization (1958) and E. Schon, Theory into Practice, Increasing Professional Effectiveness,(San Francisco, Jossey Bass, 1974) and Schon D. Organizational Learning: A Theory in Action Perspective (Addison-Wesley 1978) Reasoning, Learning and Action,(San Francisco Jossey-Bass 1982) Bennis, Warren G. The Leaning Ivory Tower and Changing Organizations (New York, McGraw-Hill 1966) and Benne, K.D. and Chin, R. The Planning of Change, Reading in the applied Behavioral Sciences (New York, Holt, Rienhart & Winston , 1964) and Nanis, B. Leaders (Harper & Row) 1986 Bernard, Chester I The Functions of the Executive (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1939) Bloom, B.S. Human Characteristics and School Learning(New York, McGraw- Hill, 1976) Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain (New York, David McKay Co. 1956) All our Children Learning (New York, McGraw Hill 1981) Boulding, K.E. (1985) The World as a Total System (Sage, Beverly Hills Calif) Bruner, J. The Process of Education(Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1961) and Goodnow, J.J. and Austin, G.A. A study of Thinking(New York Science Editions, 1967) Callahan, R. (1962) Education and the Cult of Efficiency Chicago University Press Dewey, John The School and Society(Chicago, The University Press 1956) and Education and Democracy(New York, MacMillian 1916) Democracy and Education (Free Press 1966) Drucker, Peter F. The Practice of Management (McGraw-Hill 1957) Erikson, Erik Childhood and Society(New York, Norton, 1950) Follett, Mary Parker Dynamic Administration, Collected Papers (New York, Harper & Row, 1941, Metcalf and Lyndall Editors) Glasser, William Schools without Failure (New York, Harper and Row, 1969) Goldbery, Milton and James Harvey "A Nation at Risk" Phi Delta Kappan 1983 65:14-18 Goodlad, John A Place Called School(New York, McGraw Hill, 1983) Gordon, William J.J. SYNECTICS, (New York, Harper & Row, 1961) Healey, Jane M. Endangered Minds: Why Children Don't Think and What We Can Do About It A Touthstone Book (Simon & Schuster) 1990 Hunt, D.E. and Sullivan, E.V. Between Psychology in Education (Hinsdale Il, 1974) Hunter, I.M.L. Memory (Middlesex, England Penguin Books, 1964) Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha Models of Teaching ( Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1986, 3rd) Likert, Rensis The Human Organization (McGraw-Hill, New York 1967) Maslow, Abraham A. Toward a Psychology of Being (New York, Van Nostrand, 1962) McGregor, Douglas M. The Human Side of Enterprise Olson, M The Rise and Decline of Nations (Yale University Press 1982) Peter T., On Achieving Excellence Educational Leadership (April 1992) 4,7:1 Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learn for the 80s(Columbus, Charles E. Merrill, 1982) Schien, Edgar Organizational Psychology (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs N.J. 1972) and Bennis, W.G. Personal and Organizational Change through Group Methods(New York, Wiley and Sons, 1965) Schon, D. Educating the Reflective Practitioner (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass) 1987 Simon, Herbert A. Administrative Behavior (the Free Press, New York, 1957) Taylor, Frederick - The Principles of Scientific Management (New York, Harper & Row, 1911) also Fayol, Henri in Gulick and Urwick "Papers on the Science of Administration" 1937