Peter E. Pflaum - Golden Globe - The Synergy Network http://www.wiredbrain.net/ Pflaump@wiredbrain.com Date: May 27, 1994 From: Peter E. Pflaum, Social Sciences Pflaump@wiredbrain.com@sntp To: FORM: Basic issues in Education Research and Outcomes: PROBLEM: 10% or less High School graduates ready for college (N.A.E.P. 1). It is clear we have an educational problem on our hands involving all students. As Jack Bowsher, the former educational director at IBM said; if 25% of production is broken during manufacture and if 90% don't work 80% of the time (72% defect rate) the company would have to rethink the entire production process.. (2) This is the 30-40% "drop-outs" and the disfunctional (less than 5th grade) reading and math skills of the public high schools. The way we see the problem is the problem (See Stephen Covey in Seven Habits of Effective People). We have created a group of young people 14 -18 without effective alternatives. Many could benefit from apprenticeships, co-op education, or just drop the leaving age to 14 as the traditional age of becoming a young adult. Social creations such as the comprehensive high-school become social problems, then new social creations such as Youth Services and Corrections are developed to take care of the problem caused by the original institution. The AWDA (Disabilities Act) has vastly expanded the learning disables, ADD, etc because the children that haven't learned then become the problem not the system that help create them. (Association for Direct Instruction). It also pays. In "Systems of Control and the Serious Youth Offender" Jerome G. Miller in Reforming Corrections for Juvenile Offenders, Alternatives and Strategies - Lexington Books by Bakal, Yitzhak and Polsky, Howard W. (1979) and Shichor, David and Kelly Delos H. Critical Issues in Juvenile Delinquency Lexington Books (1980) This story of social and political reform applies to any institution which has become "closed". The lack of a clear technology and conflict in goals (reform and punish) apply especially well to the public schools system. Jerome G. Miller's action in closing the State Training Schools in Massachusetts reflect on the function of professions, bureaucrats, politicos and reform groups. Our students lack cognitive skills and practical thinking abilities. They have not been asked or put in situations where they think in extended ways (3). The educational process needs to change as much as General Motors did in the creation of the SATURN plant. The message is largely in the process and methods. If we expect Z type students we must create a new system. (William G. Ouchi, Theory Z How American Business can meet the Japanese Challenge) 1981. Students are workers not the raw material in the educational system. The role of teacher is leadership. Active learning requires a moral learning community not the old factory model. (Charles Handy, (6)) The survival of the nation as a competitive culture is seriously questioned. For example a recent want-ad for a production worker at Motorola uses the following job description; (Fortune, Dec 17, 1990) The worker is expected to understand the process involved in production. (What is going on here) Think of alternatives -collect information Design and conduct experiments; Analyze data from small scale research - try changes - check for consequences - (Deming p 4) We need stable group over a longer time period and hours per day. The factory system represented by the Carnegie unit credit dices the student into intellectual pieces where nothing relates to anything else. You wouldn't expect that your office staff should shift rooms several times a day, have several supervisors with different goals and styles, and expect them to be highly productive. (Handy 6) " On most days fewer than 10 students will be working hard, the rest do little more that sit there (if they bother to come). If you ask the idle students why they are not working, they will tell you that work is boring, they don't need it, and no one cares what they think. (5) A century of educational research and practice has shown that Teamwork - interdisciplinary - project orientated techniques are clearly superior to the current piecework curriculum and methods. * Better results need large blocks of time (Carroll 10 ) * The work product rather than tests is a better method of evaluation. * Group effort with little interpersonal competition but more teamwork have better interest and motivation (8). * Everyone should read: (Anton S. Makarenko The Road to Life, An Epic in Education Oriole Edition.) and Sizer's model: (Essential Schools) SMALL SCHOOLS, EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS Teachers in one-room schoolhouses almost never lectured. These teachers knew that there wasn't much they could say simultaneously to a roomful of kids of different ages and stages of learning. So teachers moved from one group of two or three students to another. Because they couldn't spend much time with any group, they usually assigned some work to each, making sure that the group had a pretty good idea of how to proceed. Periodically the teacher would return to each group to make sure the work was being done correctly and to offer more help where it was needed. And teachers frequently asked students who'd mastered a particular task to help those who were still struggling to learn it. What one-room teachers did out of necessity -- avoid teacher talk and get kids to learn on their own or in small groups -- is actually a superior way of getting them to learn (Shanker in Fiske, 1991, p. 90). (Goodlad, 1984) offers an in-depth examination of 38 elementary, junior high, and high schools. Goodlad and his associates determined that these schools were representative of contemporary American education. The author details findings and offers restructuring plans. A major aspect of these plans is the multiage nongraded approach. Many administrative and organizational problems exist in implementing a nongraded educational structure. Often these problems stem from our history of gradedness. With standardized tests, textbooks, and other materials relying on the graded educational structure, break with tradition becomes more difficult. In addition, educators and parents are familiar with gradedness, most having been schooled that way themselves. Connel doubts customary age segregation in schools. "Segregating children by sex, race, ethnic, or socioeconomic differences is against the law. Is it right to segregate by age?" (Connel, 1987 in Webb, 1992, p. 90). Self-Esteem Research strongly indicates retention impacts negatively on children's self-esteem and further achievement (Shepard & Smith, 1990 & Katz, 1988 in Webb, 1992; Goodlad & Anderson, 1987). Elimination of nonpromotion is indicated through much literature. Along this vein, Goodlad and Anderson suggest need to also eliminate promotion (Goodlad & Anderson, 1987). Questions of whether to promote or not to promote individual students can be removed through an idea of continuous progress. Each student proceeds through material which is often the same; the difference is time. Nongradedness lends itself to this concept. Lack of readiness in kindergarten follows the child through later school years. Frustration because of lack of readiness to master expectations of adults results in low self-esteem. Fetzer and Ponder see the system of designating a child's class according to birth date alone as "antiquated" (Fetzer & Ponder, 1988, p. 192). A recent report published by the National Association of Elementary School Principals identified 163 indicators of school quality. Suggestions include: maximum class size of 20, or fewer in the primary grades; grouping by needs, not by age and grade only. School effectiveness is enhanced by the idea that all students can learn (Raze, 1985). The idea also enhances student self-esteem. Grouping Debate over grouping according to ability and achievement measures has continued since 1920. Sputnik (1957) heightened interest in identifying and encouraging children of high aptitude to enter scientific fields. Ability grouping often results in tracking where both students and teachers in low classes easily can become discouraged. Hall and Findley (1971) suggest one defect of this system is the small percentage of teachers who prefer to teach the low achieving groups. Goodlad (1984) views tracking as a repulsive practice that often begins in primary school. Evidence shows "higher-achieving students do not do better when together, and lower-achieving students do much worse when together. Tracking clearly discriminates and clearly perpetuates inequities among students . . ." (Glickman, 1991, p. 5). Recommended alternatives are groups of various sizes formed for special purposes and dissolved when the specified purpose has been accomplished. Goodlad reminds us of how much we learn by teaching others. Cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and student leadership are just some advantages of students helping each other. Leadership can change and rotate according to need. These practices are inherent to the structure of one-room and other small schools. Anton S. Makarenko devised such a plan in the Gorky Colony, a multiage school for wayward youth established in the Ukraine in the 1920's. After much trial and error, Makarenko successfully arranged a system of mixed detachments where all colonists except "the most glaringly unsuitable" (Makarenko, 1973, p. 356) served as leaders. Depending on the project, mixed detachments were scheduled and organized according to the job at hand. Upon completion of a task, the group was dissolved. Mixed detachment leaders were responsible for organization and quality control. A leader in one group served as a follower in others. Each colonist also belonged to a permanent detachment with a permanent commander. Permanent detachments formed a "nucleus for the colony" (Makarenko, 1973, p. 355). Standardized Testing Today In an opinion paper on reorganizing American education, Leona Tyler sees inadequate attention to individual differences; an excess of compulsion. Age grouping "is perhaps the worst possible strategy for maximizing the learning of individuals" (Tyler, 1985, p. 1). "A Proposal for Reorganizing American Public Education" cautions against focusing on averages of standardized test scores rather than on the spread of scores. This author criticizes reporters for lack of realization of a naturally occurring situation. They continue to be shocked at the finding that half of any group tested is below the average of the group. Human beings differ inherently in how much they learn and how rapidly they learn it. Yet we go on categorizing them by age and treating them all alike. What sense does it make to assign the same tasks to all members of an age group and expect them all to succeed equally well? (Tyler, 1985, p. 2). Implications for Change Literature on nongraded multiage instruction is plentiful. Although empirical research is lacking in many specific areas, review of writings on nongraded multiage grouping shows much support by many well-respected educators. Findings on academic achievement of graded and nongraded classes are inconclusive. There does, however, seem to be evidence of positive social and self-esteem advantages in a nongraded approach. Another thread running through much of the literature concerns belief that all children can learn -- the varying factor is time. Some students require a longer period to master the same tasks. Multiage nongraded groupings can vary in size depending on purposes. Advantages of teaching as a method of enhancing one's own learning is a device well known to educators. Implications exist here for peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and valuable leadership and followship experiences. Teacher cycling, a common practice in small schools, is mentioned in the literature. Advantages of teaching the same students for several years include greater opportunity to know those students well; possibilities for determining and designing effective individual learning programs can be increased. Critics of teacher cycling sometimes cite lack of exposure of students to teachers of different talents. Here supporters often suggest team teaching where educators can draw on the strengths of each other. Discussion Total Quality In 1950 W. Edwards Deming, an industrial engineer, introduced to Japan a method of statistical quality control. Over the last several decades Deming's approach has become well-known as quality control circles. An analysis of Deming shows there is a basic misunderstanding of evaluation in manufacturing. Similar confusion is shown by belief that objective testing is likely to improve educational quality. A central point in this discussion is the difference between standards and quality. Multiage grouping in schools can achieve quality when people of various ages work together to achieve results of distinction. "The Total Quality Classroom" (Bonstingl, 1992) applies to education Deming's 14 principles for Total Quality Management (TQM). John Jay Bonstingl sees relevant similarities of business organizations and schools. Alan M. Blankstein (1992) explains how five of Deming's principles translate into school terms. Principals and superintendents are management or leadership; teachers are employees, leaders, and managers; students are employees; student knowledge is the product; parents and society are customers; legislators are the board of directors. Lewis A. Rhodes explores TQM concepts concerning values. He points to importance of the totality of educational organizations. Work processes encompass a unified system. Synergy "In a school, everything important touches everything else of importance," notes Theodore Sizer recognizing "the synergistic character of a school" (Sizer, 1991, p. 32). "No Pain, No Gain" suggests restructuring often involves painful break with tradition. Effective change demands attention to all parts of a school. "The Quality School" (Glasser, 1990) is an adaptation of the book by the same name where psychiatrist William Glasser, M.D., examines educational application of TQM. In analysis of control theory, motivation theory, and non- coercive management employed by "lead-managers," Glasser recognizes naturally resulting high- quality educational outcomes. Our system must encourage lead-management in teachers and principals. It must discourage "boss- management," a scientific management approach employing fear, coercion, and intimidation. Because of district office bureaucratic power struggles, Glasser feels lead- management usually must be initiated at the building level. He sees teachers and principals as leaders who can make a real difference in producing high quality American schools. Quality Versus Standards Can quality be defined, or is it more accurate to view quality as a recognizable characteristic? Quality isn't something you lay on top of subjects and objects like tinsel on a Christmas tree. Real Quality must be the source of the subjects and objects, the cone from which the tree must start. To arrive at this Quality requires a somewhat different procedure from . . . . "Step 1, Step 2, Step 3" instructions . . . (Pirsig, 1974, p. 262). "Quality can be defined only in terms of the agent. Who is the judge of quality?" (Deming, 1986, p. 168). Deming sees determination of quality as involving three agents, including workers and managers as well as customers. Multiage nongraded grouping in American education offers a framework where quality can be found through development of uniquely appropriate strategies. Quality is realizing the potential within an environment. Choice in District 4 Quality was the concern in Community School District 4, East Harlem, New York. Choice developed as a way to improve education of inner-city students. Almost all students are members of minority groups. There is a high poverty level. Test scores of District 4 in the early 1970's were lowest or almost the lowest of all 32 school districts of New York City. Superintendent Anthony Alvarado gave teachers and administrators opportunities and authority to improve education in their classes by devising their own programs. They then received resources to "turn their ideas into little schools" (Fiske, 1991, p. 181). Students and parents who shared their vision could choose to attend a particular school. In 1974 Deborah Meier with 100 children opened Central Park East Elementary School. The school served grades K-2 only. Children who attended came because their parents chose the school. Central Park East uses child-centered approaches to learning and stresses content, thinking, experimenting, discussion, research, and writing. Dramatic success of the school gave rise to two others, Central Park East II and River East. Central Park East Secondary School, part of Ted Sizer's Coalition of Essential Schools, opened in 1985. The 50 District 4 schools include alternative, bilingual, and theme schools. All began as small schools. Rather than grow larger, popular schools were copied in new locations. "Less is Better" is the district belief. "Fewer students per school and classroom, less bureaucracy, and less top-down management make up their reform formula. [Says Mrs. Meier,] `Small schools are not the answer, but without them none of the proposed answers stands a chance'" (Fiske, 1991, p. 184). Holweide Comprehensive School Located in Cologne, West Germany, Holweide Comprehensive School is a contemporary example of quality education. The school began as an experiment in the mid- 1970's and serves the equivalent of American grades 5 through 11. Culturally diverse students include children of foreign guest workers and children from single-parent or poor German families. Almost all pupils are considered non- college bound. Teams of teachers remain with the same students for the entire six years of Holweide schooling. School administration is composed of only one teaching principal and two assistants who also teach. Students are not tracked according to assessed ability. Teacher teams determine how to group students and how to organize the school day. Readjustments are made as needed. Because of this structure, authentic accountability is possible. Since teachers have the same students for six years, former instructors cannot be blamed for pupil deficiencies. Teachers cannot pass problem students along to others. Teacher teamwork increases chances of defining appropriate ways to improve schooling of individual pupils. "Holweide's approach thus turns the usual bureaucratic, assembly-line processing of children into a teaching and learning enterprise, a moral community" (Shanker, 1990, p. 351). The School and Society In reading early twentieth century Dewey and in reading Goodlad's recent book (Goodlad, 1984), one is struck by recurrent themes and by apparent inability of the American educational system to adapt to changing circumstances. Schools are part of a complex web of life. The social change of which Dewey was an early prophet continues to evolve. The philosopher's concern with the exigency of learning to learn permeates his 1920 thinking. Dewey notes rapid progress of his times. Advances in industrialization, transportation, and communication dictated need to adapt to a continuously and quickly changing environment. Experience and thinking involve connection of relationships. This connection is essential for reasoning to occur. While all thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its use in thinking. For we live not in a settled and finished world, but in one which is going on, and where our main task is prospective, and where retrospect -- and all knowledge as distinct from thought is retrospect -- is of value in the solidity, security and fertility it affords our dealings with the future (Dewey, 1920, pp. 177-178). Implications of such thought exist today in our post- industrial information age. The core of Dewey's educational theory was encouragement of flexibility, creativity, and practicality in individual thinking. His argument suggests these qualities are required of a broadly democratic society as he defined it. Public schools were originally designed for students who would settle well into industrial discipline. Waves of immigrants arriving in the mid-nineteenth century were socialized to American ways through the public schools. As a segment of society, early public schooling saw as part of its role this preparation of factory workers. Assembly lines were largely staffed by immigrants from foreign countries and rural America. Factory-like compartmentalization was reflected in physical traits of schools (rows of nailed down desks) as well as in curriculum with its segmented structure. Subjects were and often are separated from other subjects and from life itself. Dewey is a prophet of contemporary critics of our educational system. The American school system is not working. Goodlad (1984) sees necessity for change even in our best schools. The system designed to produce factory workers is no longer relevant. Rather than factory mentality, we need reason -- reason derived from thinking and knowledge. As technology rushes forward, it is imperative for citizens to have learned how to learn. Dewey saw schools as small communities where students grasp larger concepts through smaller concepts relevant to their own worlds. Individual discovery of findings established centuries earlier, are new in the sense of unique interpretation. As a child uncovers wonders of nature, the individual's revelation is as fresh as an initial discovery. Goodlad (1984) sees the role of schools as communities for changing society, not as mere reflections. Sadly, what we often see inside of our schools is a mirror image of what is wrong outside. Dewey the philosopher and social theorist based much of his thought on the social sciences and psychology. He spoke of organizations as the organic whole. As industry changes from production lines to cooperative work groups, X Theory becomes Theory Z. Traditional schools espouse X Theory (individuals are inherently unmotivated, needing coercion to work or learn). Dewey's school is based on Theory Z (learning occurs naturally through relevance). Organizational structure of small schools lends itself to Type-Z application. The nongraded multiage approach is an attempt to break out of the industrial mold and teach the child as an individual being, rather than as a product to be processed. Age segregation is as unnatural as subject matter segregation. Retention shatters self-esteem into small bits. Goodlad proposes teacher cycling, schools within schools, and multiage nongraded grouping in an effort to bring continuity to schooling. Summary Factors impacting on nineteenth century enthusiasm for gradedness include teacher training through normal schools, growing popularity of textbooks, population movement from rural to urban areas, industrialization, and consolidation. According to Dewey, most features of our American educational system were instituted between 1837 and 1850. Gradedness is part of this American tradition. Proponents of multiage grouping see it as a natural order of society. Studies of simple societies and early American history reflect such grouping. Small colonial schools featured variations of multiage groupings. These practices are seen today in many small schools. Demand for community and calm focus in schools is particularly essential today because of deteriorating family conditions. Many respected educators of the twentieth century vigorously uphold concepts of multiage nongraded educational organization; many suggest problems with implementation. Benefits of multiage grouping advanced by advocates include individualized self-paced instruction, opportunity for increased self-esteem, leadership and followship experiences, peer tutoring, and cooperative learning. Multiage nongraded schooling, an inherent aspect of small school structure, lends itself to a child-centered learning approach where creativity and individuality are respected and enhanced. Organizational features of one-room and small schools make multiage nongraded grouping natural. The FDOE defines twelve characteristics to be considered in improving schools. General areas for attention include goals, focus, leadership, expectations, instruction, collaboration, development, order, time, involvement, incentives, and evaluation (FDOE, 1990). Conclusion Small schools seem to be happy schools. They tend to have high levels of participation, cooperation, and coordination. Students in small schools are likely to spend time on task, learn good study habits, and become self- reliant. Structure of the school requires high levels of participation by all students. Standardized test scores appear to be at least equal to larger schools, holding SES constant. Small school structure offers greater opportunity for educational quality. Some reasons are discussed below. Quality in Education Deming's philosophy represents a conceptual shift in how we view organizations. Quality does not result from inspection. Inspection and standards reduce rather than promote excellence. Quotas, inspections, and slogans exhorting persons to work harder and faster do not motivate. They merely defeat the purpose. We must pay attention to process, but effective process cannot be prescribed. It is developed through attention to guiding principles. Process in any organization is unique. Harmonious relations should bloom spontaneously as flowers do. It is a poor workshop where operators and foremen are considered to be part of the machinery and required to do a job specified by set standards. What constitutes a human being is the ability to think. A workshop [and a school] should become . . . place[s] where people can think and use their wisdom (Ouchi, 1981, p. 228). Inspection of schooling through instruments such as standardized tests does not improve quality. Emphasis on teamwork rather than on individual competition enhances productivity. Grades and similar assessment measures do not promote excellence. They defeat it. Some leaders forget an important mathematical theorem that if 20 people are engaged on a job, 2 will fall at the bottom 10 per cent, no matter what . . . . The important problem is not the bottom 10 per cent, but who is statistically out of line and in need of help (Deming, 1986, p. 56). Asking teachers and schools to rework mistakes following years of system failure is not a feasible path to improved educational outcomes. Parents and communities must work with teachers and administrators in developing and adapting a process capable of yielding educated, skilled, value-driven youth. Adapting Deming to schools involves restructuring our educational organizations as dramatically as the Japanese restructured their business organizations. Dewey's presence can be seen in efforts to adapt Deming to education. Thinking and Doing Schools must, as Dewey advised, reconnect thinking and doing. Group and teamwork, projects, integrated curriculum, peer tutoring, and teacher as facilitator reflect views of both Dewey and Deming. Multiage nongraded grouping is a logical framework where such educational approaches can work. In education as in industry "defects are not free. Somebody makes them, and gets paid for making them" (Deming, 1986, p. 11). Rework of defective goods is not free; it is expensive. The product of schools is student knowledge. When student knowledge is defective, it must be reworked, compounding time and expense. Members of the educational community who define quality -- students, teachers, administrators, and society must have input into our system of education. As organizations mature and grow in size, they tend to become more structured and bureaucratic. Bureaucracy separates thinking from doing (teacher-proof curriculum, textbooks, etc.). Under scientific management the doer merely follows instructions. Doers are often placed in difficult and unmotivating circumstances. There may be fool-proof systems, but often the fools are too clever. This results in more inspections, more layers of management, more bureaucracy. Years after publication of A Nation at Risk (1983), American Federation of Teachers president Albert Shanker notes implementation of numerous and various school reforms throughout our country. Largely, these attempts have not positively affected student learning (Shanker, 1990). Often in education sound ideas are found "ineffective" following poor implementation. Sometimes implementors fail to follow guidelines closely enough. Consolidation of One-Room Schools Public schools grew up with the factory system. Scientific managerial practice suggested division of labor into separate units; division of time marked by bells. Rows of desks were attached to floors. Textbooks were divided into units. Teachers, standing before the class, covered material in specified segments of time. Students, seated in fixed desks, all "learned" in standard fashion. The advent of school busses -- "with comfortable seats, heaters, windows, and front and rear doors" (Covert, 1928, p. 2) -- and paved roads encouraged consolidation of small schools into larger factory-like buildings. Scientific management encouraged standardized testing as an accurate measure of educational effectiveness. Because of lack of documentation, we will never know if or how effective one- room nongraded schools were. During the early part of the twentieth century a prejudice evolved-- one-room schools lacked the latest in fashion and the latest in facilities. There was much local control of one-room schools. Consolidation reflected political power as well as educational and managerial theory of the times. Education concerns character and thinking. Many educators have long been uncomfortable with the factory system of schooling and its large impersonal bureaucratic organization. Education is personal and moral. With the economy moving away from factories into information processing, old style industry is disappearing. Eighty percent of employment today is in small business and information processing. Schooling has always followed the leading economic institutions of the period. Education now is dealing with down-sizing, decentralizing, school-based management, and other ideas currently fashionable in the industrial world. As Dewey was the prophet of post-industrial management styles, he was keenly aware of human and moral dimensions of education. The connection of thinking with doing, of learning with practice is critical in modern information- processing businesses. It is equally critical in education. Small is beautiful. Less is more. Fix the System American schooling faces a serious systems problem. Deming urges business and industrial management to fix the system, not the blame. Students must be viewed as workers, not products to be processed. "The traditional model of schooling is . . . incompatible with the idea that students are workers, that learning must be active, and that children learn in different ways and at different rates" (Shanker, 1990, p. 350). Too many American schools today remain based on the factory model where employees produce piecework and scientific managerial principles are administrative guidelines. Small Schools and Educational Quality In a small school quality is easier to accomplish. With fewer students and fewer disruptions, teachers can focus on children. With teacher cycling and multiage nongraded grouping a learning community evolves. Students cannot merely lean on their shovels. They must be involved in their own learning. Good or great education can happen anywhere. Smaller school size is not the entire answer to America's present educational dilemma, but it is a viable place to start. For size to help significantly, schools must become small enough for people to know each other well. Small schools offer opportunities for development of stable, caring learning communities. Today America has about 8500 small nonpublic schools and about 1000 one-room public schools. Evidence suggests these schools are interesting and worthy of further study. Small schools and small sailboats are reminders of our simpler past. Small schools involve a human connection of teachers and children. Small sailboats involve a spiritual connection of sailors and surroundings. Supertankers on autopilot involve a disconnection of thinking and doing. Edward B. Fiske argues . . . the time for tinkering with the current system of public education is over. After a decade of trying to make the system work better by such means as more testing, higher salaries, and tighter curriculums, we must now face up to the fact that anything short of fundamental structural change is futile. . . . . American public schools grew up around an early industrial model that has outlived its usefulness in education as well as in the industry that created it. The renewal of public education in this country requires nothing less than a frontal assault on every aspect of schooling -- the way we run districts, organize classrooms, use time, measure achievement, assign students, relate schools to their surroundings, and hold people accountable. Trying to get more learning out of the current system is like trying to get the Pony Express to compete with the telegraph by breeding faster ponies (Fiske, 1991, p. 14-15). A major helpful educational reform is simply making schools smaller -- MUCH smaller. NOTES: 1.) Crossroads in American Education: A Summary of Findings, Arthur N. Applebee, Judith A. Langer, and Ina V.S. Mullis ( Princeton, N.J.:National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and Educational Testing Service, 1989, p. 51 2.) Albert Shanker, Reshaping our Schools, Phi Delta Kappan January 1990 3.) Bloom's taxonomy and more recently Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York, Basic Books, 1985), Howard Gardner: and Robert Sternberg, The Triarchic Mind: A new theory of Human Intelligence (New York, Penguin, 1988) 4.) W. Edwards Deming, Out of Crisis (Cambridge, MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study) 1982 5.) William Glasser, The Quality School, Phi Delta Kappan February, 1990 p 433 6.) Charles B. Handy The Age of Unreason (Boston, Mass. Harvard Business School Press) 1989 7.) Bruce R. Joyce Models of Teaching (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall) 1986 8.) Alfie Kohn No Contest, The Case against competition (Boston, Houghton Mifflin) 1986 9.) 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